The Huguenots: The Story of the French Reformation

Introduction

On 31st October 1517, the German scholar Martin Luther nailed his Ninety-five Theses to the door of Castle Church in Wittenberg, Germany. This set off a chain of events that changed the face of Europe forever. In the document, Luther attacked various aspects of Catholic doctrine and practices of the Church; he offered alternative interpretations of the holy texts and new ways of practicing religious devotion. His ideas on how to reform the Catholic Church ignited a movement which spread far and wide across Europe, and years of religious and political unrest followed as Catholics and Reformers alike tried to establish their right to exist. In France, the Catholic reaction to the Reformation was so strong that the country spent the latter half of the 16th century fighting numerous civil wars, with countless Protestant and Catholic lives being lost.

Using a wide range of items from the College’s early printed books collection and several of the College’s manuscripts, this exhibition tells the story of the French Reformation up to the Edict of Nantes in 1598.

This is an online exhibition for Michaelmas Term 2021.

Curated by Katie Hannawin, Library Assistant.

Jean Calvin and the Huguenots

Although historians attribute the start of the Reformation to Luther and his Ninety-five Theses, he was by no means the only figure seeking to reform the Church. The impact of the Lutheran movement in Germany inspired others across Europe to start their own reform movements, and in the years following 1517 several different groups began to emerge. One such group were the Calvinists.

Portrait of Jean Calvin
Jean Calvin (1509-1564) (Pp.3.16)

Born in 1509, Jean Calvin spent his younger years being educated in various institutions across France, and it was during his studies at the University of Paris that Calvin first encountered humanism. This was an intellectual movement which called for the rejection of medieval scholasticism and a return to the Classical culture of ancient Greece and Rome. Humanists believed that society would thus experience a ‘cultural rebirth’, and that all the corruption currently present within the Church would be undone. This exposure to humanism was to have a lasting effect on Calvin, and, when religious intolerance to the Reform movement caused him to flee Paris in 1533, Calvin settled in exile in newly Protestant Basel. Here he began to study theology, and in 1536 he published the first edition of his Institutio Christianae religionis (Institutes of the Christian Religion). This text was fundamental to the Reform movement, and, following the publication of the definitive edition in 1559, became the most important statement of Protestant belief. At St John’s alone we have five different versions of the text, all produced between 1574 and 1618.

Title page of 'The Institution of Christian Religion'
The Institution of Christian Religion. English. London: Printed by the widow of Reginalde Wolffe, 1574. (U.13.40)
Title page of 'Institucion de la Religion Christiana.'
Institucion de la Religion Christiana. Spanish. London: En casa de Ricardo del Campo, 1597. (Oo.8.4)
Title page of 'Instituio Christianae Religionis'
Institutio Christianæ Religionis. Latin. Geneva: Printed by Jean le Preux, 1607. (Pp.3.14)
Title page of 'The Institution of Christian Religion'
The Institution of Christian Religion. English. London: Printed by Eliot’s Court Press for John Norton, 1611. (S.7.28)
Title page of 'Institutio Christianæ Religionis'
Institutio Christianæ Religionis. Latin. Geneva. Printed by Jacques Stoer, 1618. (Ss.10.27)

Calvin and his teachings were absolutely crucial to the Protestant movement across Europe. Many historians today believe he helped to pave the way for modern-day Protestantism, with his ideas and theological beliefs creating the foundations upon which today’s religion is based. In France, the French Protestants, or Huguenots, saw Calvin as the leader of their church, and especially during the early years of the Reformation, it was to Calvin that they looked for guidance and direction.

By 1562 upwards of 1,000 congregations of Protestants, initially referred to as the 'Reformed religion', existed across France, all of whom were following the teachings of Calvin. These groups were soon given the nickname ‘Huguenots’ by their Catholic enemies, which was derived from the legend of the ghost Huguet (or Hugon), who was believed to haunt the city of Tours at night. Owing to the religious intolerance of the time, French Reformers could not meet openly but were forced to have clandestine night-time gatherings, and consequently were likened to this ghostly legend. The nickname stuck, and became an important notion of identity shared by the French Reformers.

The Printing Press

The writings of Calvin and other Reformers were a major driving force behind of the spread of Protestantism across France. However, as influential as Calvin was, it is arguable that the Reformation would not have been able to extend nearly as far as it did without one other key figure: the printing press.

Printer and the Press
‘Drawing of a Press and Printer’ by Dürer, from Ray Nash, Dürer’s 1511 Drawing of a Press and Printer (Cambridge, MA: Harvard College Library, 1947) (15.53.86). Original image at the Musée Bonnat, Bayonne.

Prior to the invention of the printing press in the mid-15th century, book production was a very slow process. Texts had to be written and copied out by hand, which meant that only a limited number could be produced over a prolonged period. Consequently, it was difficult to disseminate new ideas via the written word, and movements often struggled to gain widespread momentum as a result. This all changed when the printing press arrived. Suddenly, books could have multiple copies produced in the time it took to produce one handwritten copy. Smaller items like flyers and pamphlets could have many copies printed and ready for widespread distribution in a matter of weeks or even days. This had a massive impact on the Reformation, as it enabled Reform leaders to spread their teachings much further than before, and at a much faster rate.

Printed oage from manuscript F.19
Cicero, De officiis and other works. Mainz: Printed by Johannes Fust, 4th February 1466. This is the Library’s oldest printed book. (MS F.19)

By the late 1530s, Calvin had established himself in Geneva, where a growing number of publishing houses were emerging. Using their printing presses, these publishers were able to produce numerous volumes of Calvin’s many works, as well as smaller pro-Reform flyers and pamphlets, which could then be distributed across France via a secret network unknown to the Catholics. In this way, both Calvin’s influence and the more general teachings of the Reformed Church were still able to reach people all over France, in spite of staunch Catholic opposition to the Huguenots. Geneva became the vital link between French Reformers and their newfound ideology, and several of the College’s books from this period come from Genevan publishing houses.

Title page of a book printed in Geneva
Advertissement tresutile du grand profit qui reviendroit à la Chrestienté, sil se faisoit inventoire de tous les corps sainctz, & reliques, qui sont tant en Italie, qu'en France, Allemaigne, Hespaigne, & autres royaumes & pais. By Jean Calvin. French. Geneva: Printed by Jehan Girard, 1545. (O.29 (1))
Title page of a book printed in Geneva
Epistre envoyee au Duc de Lorraine. By Guillaume Farel. French. Geneva: Printed by Jehan Girard, 1545. (O.29 (2))

It was not just Calvin’s works that were helped by the printing press. In 1554, Jean Crespin, a prominent Genevan publisher, published the first edition of the Histoire des Martyrs, which detailed the history of the Reform movement and commemorated those who had died for their faith. This book listed countless Protestants across France and Europe who had variously suffered and died in the name of the Protestant cause, and served to inspire the Huguenots and give them a shared narrative they could be proud of.

Title page of 'Histoire des Martyrs' by Jean Crespin

Double page listing various Martyrs across France
Histoire des Martyrs persecutez et misa mort pour la verité de l’Evangile. By Jean Crespin. French. Geneva: Printed by Jean Crespin, 1582. (Q.7.15) The second image lists examples of ‘martyrs’ and their deeds from all over France, including Normandy, Paris, Langres, Bourgignon, and Tournay.

Although it is important not to overstate the impact of the printing press (‘mass-production’ in medieval terms is still minimal in comparison to today’s standards!), its contribution to the Reformation should not be forgotten either. It helped ideas to spread further and faster than before, both in the form of books like those we have in the Library, but also via flyers and pamphlets. People could be reached in a way they had never been before, and the size of the Protestant following in France by the 1560s owed much to the Genevan publishing houses.

Illustration of Geneva
Illustration of Geneva, 1595. (D.10.8)

Growing Tensions, the Edict of January, and Civil War

By the 1560s, France was a country divided, with tensions growing between the existing Catholics and the new Huguenots. At this time, French society was built upon the notion of ‘one king, one faith, one law’. This meant that all French subjects should be united under one king, believe one faith (Catholicism), and act under the jurisdiction of one law. Therefore, in Catholic eyes, any religion that differed from that of the king was heresy, and the king must act to protect both the kingdom and its faithful subjects from this threat. It was impossible for Protestants and Catholics to coexist, as this undermined the very foundations of French society. As such, the only possible course of action in response to the Reformation was complete intolerance of the Huguenots, and, with the king’s support, the repression and persecution of those who followed Calvin. This was the philosophy of both Henry II and his son Francis II.

Image of a bookseller being burnt in Avignon
‘A bookseller burnt at Avignon for selling Bibles in the French tongue, with some of them tied round his neck’ (U.15.32)

In spite of this persecution, by the 1560s the Huguenots had mustered a large following across France, made up of a wide range of people. Although evidence suggests that those who were part of the upper ranks of society generally remained Catholic, the middle and lower classes flocked to the Reformed churches. Likewise, a significant number of the nobility also declared themselves to be Huguenots, such as Louis de Bourbon, Prince of Condé, and Jeanne d’Albret, King Francis I’s niece and Queen of Navarre. The Huguenot presence in France at this time was therefore undeniable, and their petitions to the king to have their rights protected only served to aggravate the Catholics further.

Map of France, 1603
A map of France, 1603. (D.10.59). By the early 1560s, it is estimated that roughly 10% of the French population were Protestant, with significant communities developing in Nimes, Montauban, Castres, Lyon and Rouen.

These tensions were not helped by the government’s situation at this time. The unexpected death of young Francis II on 5 December 1560 meant that the crown went to his brother, Charles IX, who was only 9 years old at the time and too young to rule. Consequently, a regency government was required until Charles came of age; this was run by his mother, Catherine de Medici. In comparison to her husband and son, Catherine had a rather different approach to dealing with the Huguenot problem.

Portrait of Catheine de Medici
Portrait of Catherine de Medici (1519-1589). (F.6.6)
Portrait of Charles IX
Portrait of Charles IX (1550-1574). (F.6.6)

Catherine recognised that the previous government policies of persecution had not deterred conversion to the new religion, and the Huguenots were now so numerous they would be impossible to suppress. As such, rather than continue to persecute the Huguenots, Catherine sought to reunite the two faiths. She hoped to do this at the Colloquy of Poissy in 1561, where she assembled a commission made up of representatives from both sides who were tasked with finding a religious compromise. However, no reconciliation was reached, and instead the tensions that had been bubbling under the surface for many years now threated to spill over into physical violence. To avoid this threat becoming a reality, Catherine issued the Edict of January in 1562, which granted the Huguenots limited rights to practice their religion privately in certain designated areas.

Opening page of the articles of the Edict of January
Opening page of the articles of the Edict of January. (MS T.2)

Although very reserved in what was conceded to the Huguenots, this edict was the first legal recognition of their rights, and felt like a triumph for them. The Catholics, on the other hand, were outraged, and many refused to accept the edict’s existence. Rather than deescalating the situation, the Edict of January had the exact opposite effect, and it was not even three months later that a congregation of Huguenot worshippers were massacred inside the town of Vassy at the hands of the Henry, Duke of Guise, and his men.

Image of Huguenots being killed by the Duke of Guise at Vassy
‘Several Protestants shot by the soldiers of the Duke of Guise, at Vassy in France, when attempting to make their escape from a Barn where they had assembled at their devotions’ (U.15.32)

This act of violence sparked anger within the Huguenot community, and Louis, the Prince of Condé, responded by issuing a call to arms to the Huguenot army, declaring that they needed to defend their faith. Civil war had broken out, and what are now known as the French Wars of Religion (1562-98) had begun. The French people would not know peace for another four decades.

St Bartholomew's Day Massacre

As the first decade of the civil wars progressed, animosity continued to grow on both sides. Each new encounter led to more bloodshed, followed by a precarious peace agreement that would be broken within a matter of months. This was the pattern for the first ten years of the civil wars, but events reached a new level of violence on 24 August 1572: the day of the St Bartholomew’s Massacre.

The ongoing wars had made life difficult for all those living in France, and finding a lasting peace between the Catholics and the Protestants became increasingly important. In an attempt to create some form of religious harmony, Catherine de Medici arranged for her Catholic daughter, Marguerite of Valois, to marry the Huguenot Henry of Navarre. It was hoped that this interreligious marriage would demonstrate that coexistence was possible, and encourage the Protestants and Catholics to seek a reconciliation. The wedding, which took place on 18 August 1572, brought the vast majority of the French nobility to Paris in order to celebrate the nuptials.

Outline of Paris, 1595
Outline of Paris, 1595. (D.10.8)

One such noble was the Huguenot leader, Admiral Gaspard II of Coligny. On the night of 22 August, as Coligny was returning to his lodgings, a hired hitman attempted to shoot the admiral. He missed, merely grazing the admiral, and sending Coligny’s coreligionists into uproar. They demanded that a full investigation be launched into the attack, and that the guilty parties be punished accordingly. Pressure rose around Charles IX from both sides, and, unsure what to do, the king sought advice from some of his closest advisors. During this meeting, Charles’ advisors managed to persuade him that the Huguenot leaders were a threat to the authority of the king, and that he should use this as an opportunity to eliminate them. As a result, Charles identified specific Huguenot individuals, and ordered a small group to assassinate these men. They started with Admiral Coligny. On the night of the 24 August 1572, a detachment of royal guards, led by the Duke of Guise, assassinated the admiral and flung his body into the street. Catholic Parisians mutilated it, dragged it through the city, and then hung it on the Montfaucon gallows for all of Paris to see.

Manuscript image of account of St Bartholomew's Day Massacre
Heading 1: The violent death of the Admiral of Coligny on the night of the 23rd August 1572
Heading 2: All the servants of the said Admiral are put to death and their bodies are thrown out of the windows
Manuscript image of account of the St Bartholomew's Day Massacre
Heading 3: The nobility and others of all rank of the supposed Reformed Religion are put to death without any consideration of gender
Manuscript image of account of St Bartholomew's Day Massacre
Heading 4: Morning of 24th August, whilst walking through the streets the King gives permission anew to kill the Huguenots who have remained
Heading 5: The body of the said Admiral is dragged through the streets by the people

Extracts detailing the different stages of the St Bartholomew’s Day Massacre. (MS T.2)

 

Printed book image of account of St Bartholomew's Day Massacre
An historical account of the St Bartholomew’s Day Massacre, written in 1595. Translation of the highlighted text: ‘The rabble revolted at court in the lodgings of the Admiral, and cut the hands and private parts off of the dead body, and dragged them all over the city for three days, then took the body to the gibbet at Montfaucon and hung it up by its feet.’ (D.11.24)

As the assassins continued to carry out their orders across Paris, word spread about the violence that was taking place, and rumours distorted Charles IX’s original instructions. Anti-Protestant members of Paris believed that the king had finally sanctioned the eradication of the Huguenots, and what started as a controlled operation against specific Huguenot leaders, finished as a four-day massacre in the nation’s capital. Huguenots in Paris were butchered mercilessly, their houses and business were sacked, their bodies flung carelessly into the River Seine. Although the king issued a proclamation on 25th August for the violence to end, the massacre continued in Paris, and the violence spread quickly to the provinces over the following few days and weeks.

Image of the massacre in Paris
‘View of the dreadful massacre of the Protestants in Paris on St Bartholomew’s Day, 1572’. (U.15.32)

It is estimated that 10,000 Huguenots were slaughtered during this massacre, with 3,000 alone dying in Paris. Historians today dispute who was actually responsible for the initial kill order, with some attributing it to Catherine de Medici instead of her son. Nevertheless, it was Charles IX who publicly took responsibility for the killing of the Huguenot aristocrats, claiming that there had been a Protestant conspiracy against the crown and that the killing had been just and necessary.

Image of soldiers moving outside Paris under direction of the King
Soldiers marching into Paris. (B.5.6)

The St Bartholomew’s Day Massacre changed the course of the civil war irrevocably. As the violence in provincial areas continued into October, there was a massive wave of defections from the Protestant cause, with thousands of Huguenots losing heart. Many fled abroad, or sought refuge in the few Protestant strongholds that remained. Charles IX saw an opportunity to end the ‘Protestant problem’, and banned the Huguenots from gathering to worship; he claimed that this was in order to protect them from being subject to any further violence, but in reality he hoped that this would stop Protestantism once and for all.

The remaining Huguenot cities, such as La Rochelle, Montauban and Nimes, ignored this new ban, and continued to offer refuge to all Huguenots who had been forced to flee their homes. From these strongholds, the Huguenots began to organise themselves, and the renewed hatred of the Catholics following the massacre prompted them to establish a strong network of political organisation and military defence. The Huguenots would never again allow such events as the St Bartholomew’s Day Massacre to take place.

Philippe de Mornay

In the years following the St Bartholomew’s Day Massacre, the civil wars continued to unfold like a bloody game of tennis. Each time it seemed that the Huguenots had achieved some protection of their rights, the Catholics soon knocked them back again in a new round of fighting. Matters were made much worse in 1584, when the heir to the throne, the Duke of Anjou, died, leaving King Henry III with no clear successor. This provided an important opportunity for both the Huguenots (led by Henry of Navarre) and the Catholics (now operating as the Catholic League, formed in 1576 and led by Henry, Duke of Guise), as both sides realised that if they could secure a representative on the throne, the wars would be as good as won. What had started as wars of religion now became wars of succession also.

During this time there emerged a new wave of Huguenot leaders and diplomats, who helped to shape the remaining years of the civil wars. One such diplomat was Philippe de Mornay, seigneur du Plessis-Marly. Having been brought up with a Protestant education, de Mornay was one of the strongest advocates for the Protestant cause during the later years of the Wars of Religion, and beyond. He had been in Paris on the day of the St Bartholomew’s Massacre, and had narrowly escaped with his life. Following this, he wrote several political tracts which outlined Protestant policy; he also fought in the Huguenot army in the later years of the 1570s. The College has various copies of his works, which are all heavily pro-Reform and often launch attacks on the Pope.

Image of summary of chapters

Close up of the summary of chapters, showing title of chapter 10
Summary of chapters in de Mornay’s ‘A Treatise of the Church’. Chapter 10 identifies the act of Communion as being the ‘Communion of Antichrist’, and describes the Pope and his fellow Catholics as Schismatics (U.17.10)

 

Title page of one of Philippe de Mornay's book
A Woorke Concerning the Trewnesse of the Christian Religion, by Philippe de Mornay; translated by Sir Philip Sidney[,] Knight, and finished by Arthur Golding. London: 1587. (Rr.9.45)

 

Image of a note to the reader at the beginning of de Mornay's 'Mystery of Iniquity'
From 'The Mysterie of Iniquitie' by Philippe de Mornay; translated by Samson Lennard, 1612. In this note to the reader, de Mornay attacks Pope Paul V (1605-1611), and argues that the Latin inscription of his name adds up to the number of ‘the Beast’. (Q.4.35)

Philippe de Mornay’s many writings were very important for the defence and continuation of the Huguenot cause, and, as seen in the examples above, are valuable sources for this period. However, de Mornay’s role extended to well beyond that of just a political writer, for he was also a trusted counsellor of Henry of Navarre, and was greatly involved in the important diplomatic negotiations that helped pave the way for the end of the wars.

The Edict of Nantes and the End of the Wars

When the question of succession arose in 1584, the Catholic League put forward several different candidates, whilst Henry of Navarre became the clear choice for the Huguenots. Initially, Henry III did not know whom to endorse as his successor, but by 1588 it became apparent that the League had grown so powerful it was threatening royal authority. Henry III decided that the only way to regain control over the League was to have its leader, the Duke of Guise, killed on 23 December 1588.

Title page of the 'Duke of Guise: A Tragedy'
Title page of Ee.2.2 (8)
Image of final scene of the play 'The Duke of Guise'
Final scene of Ee.2.2 (8)
Final page of the play 'the Duke of Guise'
‘The Duke of Guise: A Tragedy’. A play written about the life and death of the Duke of Guise. The second and third images are the final scene where the Duke of Guise is murdered by the King. (Ee.2.2 (8))

This act caused outrage within the Catholic community. The Faculty of Theology of Paris declared Henry III to be a tyrant, not a king, and stated that loyalty to him was no longer required by the French people. Catholic uprisings followed in many provincial cities, including in Paris, and it became clear to Henry III that his largest threat was no longer the Huguenots, but the League. Consequently, in April 1589, following important negotiations spearheaded by Philippe de Mornay, Henry III was reconciled with Henry of Navarre, and the king’s full support was given to the Bourbon Prince. A Protestant successor had been chosen, and the wars of religion entered their final phase.

The final ten years of the wars were by far the most devastating, as they affected the whole of the kingdom for a prolonged period of time. In spite of the alliance between Henry III and Henry of Navarre, the League refused to recognise Henry of Navarre as heir to the throne, and they stood firm from their stronghold in Paris. Consequently, both Henrys laid siege to Paris in July 1589, but on 1 August Henry III was stabbed in his headquarters in Saint-Cloud, and tragically died from his wound. Henry of Navarre was effectively now Henry IV, King of France, but it would be another nine years of fighting against the League before he could sit on his throne.

Portrait of Henry IV
Portrait of Henry IV, King of France and Navarre (1553-1610). (D.10.30)

Asserting his right to the crown was by no means an easy task for Henry IV, especially whilst he was still a Protestant. Therefore, in an attempt to appease his Catholic subjects, Henry declared he wanted to receive instruction in the Catholic faith, and, after a suitable period of instruction, publicly abjured his Protestant beliefs in July 1593. Opposition to him did not immediately disappear following this conversion, but it certainly strengthened the arguments in favour of him being on the throne. Finally there was a leader who had the potential to rally both Protestant and Catholic support, and bring the country out of war at last.

In contrast, the League at this time found itself in chaos, with internal divisions preventing any form of unified front against Henry IV. They became reliant on the support of Philip II of Spain, and Henry declared war on Spain in 1595 in retaliation. This final war continued for three years until March 1598, when the chieftain of the Brittany branch of the League laid down his arms and entered into peace negotiations. Other branches of the League, as well as Spain itself, soon followed suit.

Title page of 'The History of the League'

Firts page of 'The History of the League'
The History of the League. A detailed history of the League and its role in the civil wars. Written in French by Monsieur Maimbourg; translated into English by Mr. Dryden. 1684. (F.10.2)

As this victory over the League and Spain became more certain, and Henry IV’s position on the throne became more secure, Henry looked to solve the religious question once and for all. In April 1598, he issued the Edict of Nantes, a document that would end all fighting and enable France to enter a (brief) period of religious coexistence. After almost forty years, the Wars of Religion were finally over.

Peace at Last?

The Edict of Nantes was by no means perfect, but it was one of the first examples of official religious tolerance in Europe, and granted the Huguenots more rights than they had previously experienced. It granted them permission to worship in many parts of the kingdom (although not Paris), gave them full civil rights (including access to education), and confirmed the existence of special parlements, first established in 1576, which provided impartial justice for Protestant claims. A special court made up of both Protestants and Catholics, the Chambre de l’Édit, was also set up to deal with any disputes arising from the edict.

Catholics also saw some rewards in the edict, as it decreed that Catholicism be restored in all areas across France, even Huguenot strongholds, and it made any further expansion of Protestantism in France illegal. For the first time, religious coexistence seemed possible. In reality, this was somewhat short-lived, as the events following the murder of Henry IV in 1610 plunged the country back into new waves of civil war, which eventually led to the complete revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685 and a return to Huguenot persecution. However, for at least a short while, in April 1598 it was clear a new chapter was starting in France, a chapter that might bring peace, and could be written with a new narrative: one king, two faiths, one law.